Explosion of Knowledge  – Vita Activa – Humanism

 

Niccolò MACHIAVELLI

(Florence, 1469 – 1527)

(Reading: “Il Principe” – The Prince, Relevant chapters: 15, 18, 19, 21)

• Statesman and political philosopher.
• His most important work: “Il Principe” (The Prince)
• Written in 1513, but published in 1532
• Guide for the monarchical ruler

Il Principe

• Chapter 18
  • Therefore it is unnecessary for a prince to have all the good qualities I have enumerated, but it is very necessary to appear to have them. And I shall dare to say this also, that to have them and always to observe them is injurious (harmful), and that to appear to have them is useful; to appear merciful, faithful, humane, religious, upright (honest), and to be so, but with a mind so framed that should you require not to be so, you may be able and know how to change to the opposite.
• Chapter 15
  • “Hence it is necessary for a prince wishing to hold his own to know how to do wrong, and to make use of it or not according to necessity.“
• Chapter 21
  • “And a prince ought, above all things, always to endeavour in every action to gain for himself the reputation of being a great and remarkable man.”
• Chapter 19
  • “And here it should be noted that hatred is acquired as much by good works as by bad ones, therefore, as I said before, a prince wishing to keep his state is very often forced to do evil; for when that body is corrupt whom you think you have need of to maintain yourself- it may be either the people or the soldiers or the nobles- you have to submit to its humours and to gratify them, and then good works will do you harm.”

John Locke (1632 – 1708)

(Reading: Essay Concerning Human Understanding – Of Other Relations)

• Precursor of the Enlightenment
• Father of empirical philosophy
• Holder of different political and academic positions.
• France, Holland, Germany …
• “Essay Concerning Human Understanding”

Essay Concerning Human Understanding

Foundation of Social Order

•  3 Kinds of Law
  • The Divine law
  • The Civil Law
  • The Law of Opinion (Fashion or Reputation)

• “the measure of what is everywhere called and esteemed ‘virtue’ and ‘vice’ is this approbation or dislike, praise or blame, which, by a secret and tacit consent, establishes itself in the several societies …”
• “The penalties that attend the breach of God’s laws some, nay, perhaps most men, seriously reflect on: and amongst those that do, many, whilst they break the law, entertain thoughts of future reconciliation, and making their peace for such breaches.
• And as to the punishments due from the laws of the commonwealth, they frequently flatter themselves with the hopes of impunity.
• But no man escapes the punishment of their censure and dislike who offends against the fashion and opinion of the company he keeps, and would recommend himself to.”
• “Nor there is one of ten thousand, who is stiff and insensible enough, to bear up under the constant dislike and condemnation of his own club. He must be of a strange and unusual constitution, who can content himself to live in constant disgrace and disrepute with his own particular society. Solitude many men have sought, and been reconciled to: but nobody that has the least thought or sense of a man about him can live in society under the constant dislike and ill opinions of his familiars and those he converses with. This is a burden too heavy for human sufferance.”
• “Men commonly regulate their assent, and pin their faith more than anything else (upon) the opinion of others … men have reasons to be Heathens in Japan, Mahometans in Turkey, Papists in Spain … put in another way, that which we call our opinion does not belong to us but is a simple reflection of the opinions of others.”

Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)

L’opinion publique

• Machiavelli:
  • Opinione universale
  • Commune opinione
  • Pubblica voce

Essays

• “What kind of truth is it, that is delimited by mountains and becomes a lie on the other side of those mountains”.
• “If mountains can set limits to truth, then opinion must have a social aspect and strict boundaries to its realm”.
• “So that we really have no standards of truth and reason other than the examples and ideas of opinions and habits that we see around us everyday.”
• “A Wise man ought inwardly to retire his mind from the common press, and hold the same liberty and power to judge freely of all things, but for outward matters, he ought absolutely to follow the fashions and form customarily received”.